Strategy and tactics Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)

1 strategy , tactics

1.1 alliance mongols
1.2 weapons
1.3 fortifications , siege warfare

strategy , tactics

a byzantine fresco of saint mercurius armed sword, dated 1295, ohrid, macedonia

the byzantine empire s main strategy aimed make maximum use of outnumbered army. key behind approach use of border fortifications impede invading force long enough main imperial army march in relief. 1 example of occurred on may 1281 when tarchaneiotes sent michael viii relieve fort town of berat, , succeeded in driving charles of house of angevins away. nonetheless, strategy not in touch military situation of day – forts , castles became increasingly less useful defense , more residence. in particular crusader forts, byzantiums major opponent in west. these forts played little role in helping crusaders hold on territories , battle decided on open field; castle of thebes lost twice, first crusaders , catalans in 20 years without siege. may have contributed relegation of castles in war fact crusaders in greece desperately short of manpower , therefore destruction of army on field left castles defenceless – seen in constantinople in 1261, skeleton force left defend capital due latin empire s lack of manpower.

reconnaissance , ambushing enemy columns remained favorite byzantine tactic. @ battle of pelekanos, ottomans spied upon opposing byzantine troops. prudence remained admirable virtue (as can seen john cantacuzenus advice withdraw pelekanos).

more serious shortcomings in byzantine strategy occurred in asia minor, particularly against ottoman turks raid byzantine lands , retreat before serious resistance counter. local population endured heavy burdens in providing officials food , matériel, such burdens difficult bear, ravages of warfare brought home ottomans , ghazi followers. @ magnesia, nicomedia , pelekanos byzantines suffered serious defeats @ hands of turks; since there few troops spare, empire brought 1 step closer peril each defeat.

hulagu, founder of ilkhanates; byzantium s ally in 14th century.

after imperial army suffered defeat in asia minor, andronikos iii saw anatolia lost cause , began reorganizing byzantine fleet; result aegean remained effective defense against turkish incursions until gallipoli @ last captured turks in 1354. on, byzantine military engaged in small scale warfare against weak crusader opponents, mixing in diplomacy , subterfuge, exploiting civil conflict amongst ottoman opponents. in peloponnese, territory continued re-conquered byzantines against weak crusaders until mid 15th century, when byzantine enclave in morea conquered ottomans.

alliance mongols

michael viii palaiologos anxious establish alliance mongols, highly favourable christianity, many of them being nestorian christians. signed treaty in 1263 mongol khan of golden horde, , married 2 of daughters (conceived through mistress, diplovatatzina) mongol kings: euphrosyne palaiologina, married nogai khan of golden horde, , maria palaiologina, married abaqa khan of ilkhanid persia. in 1282, nogai khan provided michael viii 4,000 mongols whom sent against thessaly. alliance mongols benefit son andronicus ii; in 1305 ilkhan oljeitu promised andronicus ii 40,000 men, , in 1308 dispatched 30,000 men recover many byzantine towns in bithynia.

weapons

weapons amongst byzantine army varied greatly, did composition of army. shields , spears common weapon. however, 14th century, crossbow emerged important anti-personnel weapon. in line western european military thinking, saw rise in importance of genoese crossbow , longbow in england in 14th , 15th centuries. given late-imperial dependence on western mercenaries, unsurprising. empire shrunk, resources , ability fight declined; when constantinople besieged in 1453, walls unable bear mounting cannon (the recoil of guns shake rubble-core theodosian walls down) , empire unable use piece of technology.

fortifications , siege warfare

ruined fortifications of theodosia, in crimea. occupied genoa before mid-14th century, of existing fortifications later modified.

byzantine military strategy relied heavily on fortifying towns , cities. walls consisted of stonework layers of thick bricks in between, perhaps allowing absorption of attack. later, artillery became increasingly more effective, sloped walls came play. walls augmented towers, evenly spaced out , running length of walls. walled towers designed cover entire town.

supplying towns , forts became byzantium s worst problem and, though turks lacked expertise take walled towns, not defeated on land nor blockade broken. cities such nicaea , nicomedia fell after few years or more. so, longer period of time crusaders in levant able hold out impressive forts such krak des chevaliers surrendered relatively quickly. worse still crusader forts in aegean, surrendered byzantines , turks without fight.

the byzantine army regained increasingly offensive role against crusaders in mid late 13th century many fortifications regained byzantines fell out of use; lack of manpower , multiple pressing fronts relegated these castles abandonment. of castles captured in greece used control local hostile greek, albanian, vlach or other tribal peoples opposed frankish rule , since byzantines both greek , orthodox, threat crusaders had contend existed on lesser scale byzantines, giving them reason not repair them. constantinople s fortifications remained formidable, repairing them proved impossible after 1370 due destructive nature of ongoing civil war. time byzantines emerged it, forced acknowledge suzerainty of ottoman sultan, threatened military action if repairs made millennium-old walls of constantinople. heavily outnumbered, walls of capital provided defenders in 1453 6 weeks of defense.