History Partitions of Poland

1 history

1.1 first partition
1.2 second partition
1.3 third partition

history

allegory of 1st partition of poland, showing catherine great of russia (left), joseph ii of austria , frederick great of prussia (right) quarrelling on territorial seizures



włodzimierz tetmajer, allegory of dead poland, st. nicholas cathedral, kalisz

during reign of władysław iv (1632–48), liberum veto: policy of parliamentary procedure developed, based on assumption of political equality of every gentleman , corollary unanimous consent needed measures. single member of parliament s belief measure injurious own constituency (usually own estate), after act had been approved, became enough strike act. became increasingly difficult undertake action. liberum veto provided openings foreign diplomats ways, through bribing nobles exercise it. thus, 1 characterise poland–lithuania in final period (mid-18th century) before partitions in state of disorder , not sovereign state; vassal state, or in modern terms, russian satellite state, russian tsars choosing polish kings. applies particularly last commonwealth king stanisław august poniatowski, time had been lover of russian empress catherine great.

in 1730 neighbors of polish–lithuanian commonwealth (rzeczpospolita), namely prussia, austria , russia, signed secret agreement maintain status quo: specifically, ensure commonwealth laws not change. alliance later became known in poland alliance of 3 black eagles (or löwenwolde s treaty), because 3 states used black eagle state symbol (in contrast white eagle, symbol of poland). commonwealth had been forced rely on russia protection against rising kingdom of prussia, demanded slice of northwest in order unite western , eastern portions; leave commonwealth baltic coast in latvia , lithuania. commonwealth never liquidated unless long-time ally, austria, allowed it, catherine had use diplomacy win austria side.

the commonwealth had remained neutral in 7 years war (1756–1763), yet sympathized alliance of france, austria, , russia, , allowed russian troops access western lands bases against prussia. frederick ii retaliated ordering enough polish currency counterfeited severely affect polish economy. through polish nobles whom russia controlled , russian minister warsaw, ambassador , prince nicholas repnin, empress catherine great forced constitution on commonwealth @ so-called repnin sejm of 1767, named after ambassador repnin, dictated terms of sejm (and ordered capture , exile kaluga of vocal opponents of policies, including bishop józef andrzej załuski , others). new constitution undid reforms made in 1764 under stanisław ii. liberum veto , old abuses of last 1 , half centuries guaranteed unalterable parts of new constitution (in so-called cardinal laws). repnin demanded religious freedom protestant , orthodox christians, , resulting reaction among of poland s roman catholics, deep resentment of russian intervention in commonwealth s domestic affairs, led war of confederation of bar of 1768–1772, formed in bar, poles tried expel russian forces commonwealth territory. irregular , poorly commanded polish forces had little chance in face of regular russian army , suffered major defeat. adding chaos ukrainian cossack , peasant rebellion, koliyivshchyna, erupted in 1768 , resulted in massacres of noblemen (szlachta), jews, uniates, , catholic priests, before put down polish , russian troops.

in 1769 austria annexed small territory of spisz , in 1770 – nowy sącz , nowy targ. these territories had been bone of contention between poland , hungary, part of austrian crown lands.

first partition


polish–lithuanian commonwealth after first partition protectorate of russian empire 1773–1789

in february 1772, agreement of partition signed in vienna. in august, russian, prussian , austrian troops simultaneously invaded commonwealth , occupied provinces agreed upon among themselves. on august 5, 1772, occupation manifesto issued, consternation of country exhausted endeavors of confederation of bar offer successful resistance; nevertheless, several battles , sieges took place, commonwealth troops refused lay down arms (most notably, in tyniec, częstochowa , kraków).

the partition treaty ratified signatories on september 22, 1772. frederick ii of prussia elated success; prussia took of royal prussia (without danzig) stood between possessions in kingdom of prussia , margraviate of brandenburg, ermland (warmia), northern areas of greater poland along noteć river (the netze district), , parts of kuyavia (but not city of toruń). despite token criticism of partition austrian empress maria theresa, austrian statesman wenzel anton, prince of kaunitz-rietberg, proud of wresting large share did, rich salt mines of bochnia , wieliczka. austria fell zator , auschwitz (oświęcim), part of lesser poland embracing parts of counties of kraków , sandomir , whole of galicia, less city of kraków. catherine of russia satisfied. diplomatic document russia came possession of section of livonia had remained in commonwealth control, , of belarus embracing counties of vitebsk, polotsk , mstislavl.

rejtan @ sejm 1773, oil on canvas jan matejko, 1866, 282 cm × 487 cm (111 in × 192 in), royal castle in warsaw.

by partition, polish–lithuanian commonwealth lost 30% of territory , half of population (four million people), of large portion had not been ethnically polish. seizing northwestern poland, prussia instantly gained control on 80% of commonwealth s total foreign trade. through levying enormous customs duties, prussia accelerated collapse of commonwealth.

after having occupied respective territories, 3 partitioning powers demanded king stanisław , sejm approve action. when no forthcoming , armies of combined nations occupied warsaw compel force of arms calling of assembly, no alternative chosen save passive submission will. so-called partition sejm, russian military forces threatening opposition, on september 18, 1773, signed treaty of cession, renouncing claims of commonwealth occupied territories.

second partition


after second partition (1793)

by 1790 first polish republic had been weakened such degree forced unnatural , terminal alliance enemy, prussia. polish–prussian pact of 1790 signed. conditions of pact contributed succeeding , final 2 partitions of poland–lithuania.

the may constitution of 1791 enfranchised bourgeoisie, established separation of 3 branches of government, , eliminated abuses of repnin sejm. reforms prompted aggressive actions on part of neighbours, wary of potential renaissance of commonwealth. arguing poland had fallen prey radical jacobinism @ high tide in france, russian forces invaded commonwealth in 1792.

in war in defense of constitution, pro-russian conservative polish magnates, confederation of targowica, fought against polish forces supporting constitution, believing russians them restore golden liberty. abandoned prussian allies, polish pro-constitution forces, faced targowica units , regular russian army, defeated. prussia signed treaty russia, agreeing polish reforms revoked , both countries receive chunks of commonwealth territory. in 1793, deputies grodno sejm, last sejm of commonwealth, in presence of russian forces, agreed russian territorial demands. in second partition, russia , prussia helped enough land one-third of 1772 population remained in poland. prussia named newly gained province south prussia, posen (and later warsaw) capital of new province.

targowica confederates, did not expect partition, , king, stanisław august poniatowski, joined them near end, both lost prestige , support. reformers, on other hand, attracting increasing support, , in 1794 kościuszko uprising began.

third partition

kosciuszko s ragtag insurgent armies won initial successes, fell before superior forces of russian empire. partitioning powers, seeing increasing unrest in remaining commonwealth, decided solve problem erasing independent polish state map. on 24 october 1795 representatives signed treaty, dividing remaining territories of commonwealth among 3 countries.

the russian part included 120,000 km (46,332 sq mi) , 1.2 million people vilnius, prussian part (new provinces of new east prussia , new silesia) 55,000 km (21,236 sq mi) , 1 million people warsaw, , austrian 47,000 km (18,147 sq mi) 1.2 million , lublin , kraków.