Subject Concords .28and Tense Construction.29 Otjiherero grammar

1 subject concords (and tense construction)

1.1 present , future tenses

1.1.1 present habitual tense
1.1.2 copulative / associative present tense
1.1.3 present progressive / near future tense
1.1.4 indefinite future tense
1.1.5 present perfect


1.2 past tenses

1.2.1 recent past
1.2.2 yesterday s / completed past
1.2.3 intermediately distant past
1.2.4 distant past
1.2.5 general non-recent past
1.2.6 past continuous
1.2.7 past habitual
1.2.8 copulative / associative past

subject concords (and tense construction)

unlike english, every verb (except when used command or infinitive) preceded part of speech called subject concord. subject concords similar helping (auxiliary) verbs in english, except have no meaning without accompanying verb, whereas helping verbs such used verb in sentences. subject concords inflect denote tense, aspect, , modality, unlike otjiherero verbs, subject concords inflect show subject. because subject concord implies subject little or no ambiguity, nouns , pronouns of subjects left out in otjiherero sentences.

in discussing tenses, concepts of verb stem conjugation , main alternative conjugation succinctly describe conjugation of verb in many cases. more information on these terms, see section on verbs above. also, since subject concords vary depending subject, notation nouns section used.

subject concords carry negation in otjiherero sentences. in other words, verbs didn t happen use different subject concord. note tenses exist positively or negatively.

positive subject concords

negative subject concords

present , future tenses

otjiherero has 5 tenses occur in present or future time frames. these the

present habitual tense

the present habitual tense used actions occur regularly, emphasizing ongoing recurrence of action rather occurrence in present moment.

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + present habitual subject concord + verb stem conjugation

examples

mbi honga ovivarero. teach math.
maveja u kara kokahandja. maveja stays (lives) in okahandja.

the following formula describes negation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative present habitual subject concord + main alternative conjugation

examples

kave koho ozombanda. don t wash clothes.
ami hi ri onyama. don t eat meat.

copulative / associative present tense

otjiherero includes 2 special words have unique parts of speech: copula, ri, , associative, na. these correlate english verbs , have / , respectively (but ri , na not considered verbs).

regardless of whether these used in present progressive situations or habitual situations, use habitual subject concord when used in present tense. similar english, happy. , have pencil. more common m being happy. , m having pencil. , when used in present progressive context.

ri finds main uses in present tense when used to

define location, or
use adverbs

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + habitual subject concord + ri + adverb or preposition+location or pi? ( where? )

examples

ami mbi ri nawa. m not well.
tjahere u ri pi? tjahere?
tjahere u ri kotjiwarongo. tjahere in otjiwarongo.

note when used interrogative pi, ri omitted contraction

examples

tjahere u pi? tjahere?
tji pi? it? (the understood context , knowledge tji in ovi noun class)

the following formula describes negation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative habitual subject concord + ri + adverb or preposition+location

examples

ami hi ri nawa. m not well.
ovanatje kave ri kotjiwarongo. children aren t in otjiwarongo.

na used show association or having. associative prefixes onto noun, dropping if noun beings vowel.

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + habitual subject concord + (n(a)+noun)

examples

mbi nozombura omirongo vivari. have twenty years. (i m twenty years old.)
u notjipaturure? have key?

the following formula describes negation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative habitual subject concord + (n(a)+noun)

examples

hi nozombura omirongo vivari. don t have twenty years. (i m not twenty years old.)
ko notjipaturure. don t have key.

present progressive / near future tense

verbs happening in current moment conjugated in tense, though verbs conjugated in recent past tense. also, verbs take place in arbitrarily near future conjugated in tense.

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + present progressive / near future subject concord + main alternative conjugation

examples

me ya nambano m coming now.
matu kondo ovirongo re crossing towns/villages. (travelling/visiting)

the following formula describes negation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative present progressive / near future subject concord u verb stem conjugation

examples

ko nakuyenda? re not going?
ozongombe kaze nakunwa kotjitoto. cows aren t going drink @ hole.

indefinite future tense

actions take place in indefinitely distant future conjugated in tense.

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + indefinite future subject concord + main alternative conjugation

examples

mokurooro maatu karya ozombe in summer, go eat berries.
mee koamerica go america.

the following formula describes negation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative indefinite future subject concord + main alternative conjugation

examples

kamaatu zembi not forget.
himee koho ozombanda. not wash clothes.

present perfect

this tense strictly defined negations. can interpreted in english haven t/hasn t or still haven t/hasn t

the following formula describes negation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative present perfect subject concord + verb stem conjugation

examples

hi ya zuva. haven t heard.
ke ya honga. hasn t taught.

past tenses

in otjiherero, majority of tenses occur in past. these include

recent past

the recent past tense includes verbs performed earlier in same day.

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + general past subject concord + main alternative conjugation

examples

simbuli wa kopuwo. simbuli went opuwo.
mba zuu. understood.

unlike english, verbs still presently occurring still use recent past tense. 1 can interpret verb captures initiation or transition occurring @ beginning of action, , action grammatically understood still taking place if conjugated in recent past tense; however, similar verbs not conjugated in same tense.

examples

eye wa rara. he/she sleeping. (he/she fell asleep)
mba handja. m mad. (i became mad.)

yet similar verbs conjugated in present progressive tense

me vanga. want.
mave tira. afraid.

there no negation tense, negations either migrate present perfect or yesterday s / completed past tense.

yesterday s / completed past

verbs performed day or few days ago find conjugated in tense.

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + general past subject concord + verb stem conjugation behalvatory suffix(!)

(!) irregular verbs, such okurya, not use verb stem conjugation. see subsection on behalvatory suffixes instructions on how create suffix.

examples

ove wa manene oviungura vyoye. finished work.
twa kunine ozomiriva. planted corn.

also, verbs use recent past conjugation indicate presently occurring use yesterday s / completed past show complete, if happened in current day.

examples

ovanatje va rarere. children slept. / children fell asleep. (but re not asleep anymore) (earlier today)
mba handjere. mad. / became mad. (but m not mad anymore) (earlier today)

there no negation tense, negations non-recent past migrate general non-recent past tense.

intermediately distant past

actions not performed yesterday-ish yet not being emphasized distantly past fall in intermediate category.

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + general past subject concord + verb stem conjugation

examples

mba honga. taught. (not yesterday, not in far, far past.)
ovanatje va koha ozombanda . children washed clothes (not yesterday, not in far, far past.)

there no negation tense, negations non-recent past migrate general non-recent past tense.

very distant past

this tense represents greatest possible emphasis on happening long ago. formation of tense same of yesterday s past, verbs have up-accent on final vowel. there no negation tense, negations non-recent past migrate general non-recent past tense.

general non-recent past

this tense exists in negation, , encompasses negations of yesterday s / completed past , intermediately distant past , , verb distant past tenses.

the following formula describes negation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative habitual subject concord + verb stem conjugation behalvatory suffix(!)

(!) irregular verbs, such okurya, not use verb stem conjugation. see subsection on behalvatory suffixes instructions on how create suffix.

examples

hi tupikire. didn t run.
ovanatje kave nyandere. children didn t play.

past continuous

to emphasize extended temporal nature of action in past, past continuous tense used. same saying playing. instead of played.

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + general past subject concord + ri + (a- + subject concord d use if doing action right now. present progressive subject concord, verbs general past subject concord.) + main alternative conjugation

examples

mba ri ame nyanda. playing.
ovanatje va ri amave koho ozombanda. children washing clothes.

this tense useful saying happened while else happening.

examples

mama wandje ndji tonene ongoze tji mba ri ame i. mother called me while leaving.
mba zikire omariro womuhuka omunene ove tji wa ri awa rara. cooked breakfast while sleeping.

for 3rd person singular, contractions may used.

kauarive wa ri ama kondjisa omusuko. kauarive flirting young girl. (theoretical non-contracted sentence)
kauarive wa ri aa kondjisa omusuko. (partially contracted)
kauarive wa raa kondjisa omusuko. (standard form)

the conjunction ngunda ( while ) used in past continuous tense.

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + ngunda + (a- + subject concord d use if doing action right now. present progressive subject concord, verbs general past subject concord.) + main alternative conjugation

in other words, ngunda can replace general past subject concord , ri.

examples

mama wandje ndji tonene ongoze ngunda ame i. mother called me while leaving.
mba zikire omariro womuhuka omunene ove ngunda awa rara. cooked breakfast while sleeping.

the following formula describes negation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + past copulative subject concord + ri + (a- + subject concord d use if doing action right now. present progressive subject concord, verbs general past subject concord.) + main alternative conjugation

examples

himba ri ame nyanda. wasn t playing.
ovanatje kava ri amave koho ozombanda. children weren t washing clothes.

past habitual

actions once took place habitually no longer taking place habitually fall past habitual tense. can compared used in english.

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + past habitual subject concord + verb stem conjugation

examples

ozongombe aaze kara mokuti. cows used live in wilderness.
ami ee nyanda, nambano hi nyanda rukwao. used play, don t play anymore.

the following formula describes negation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative past habitual subject concord + verb stem conjugation

examples

ozongombe kaaze kara mokuti. cows didn t used live in wilderness.
ami hee nyanda, nambano mbi nyanda. didn t used play, play.

copulative / associative past

to use otjiherero copula ri in past tense, copulative past conjugation used (unless in past habitual). required when

using past continuous (described above)
using ri identify 1 noun noun in past
using na/n- show association in past

the following formula describes formation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + general past subject concord + ri + (noun or (na/n-+noun))

examples

mba ri omiṱiri. teacher.
mba ri nokati. had stick.

the following formula describes negation of tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative copulative past subject concord + ri + (noun or (na/n-+noun))

examples

himba ri omiṱiri. wasn t teacher.
himba ri nokati. didn t have stick.

in case of copula ri in past habitual tense, conjugation proceeds in habitual tense style.

examples

ee ri omiṱiri. used teacher.
hee ri nokati. didn t used have stick.




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